by Ajahn Tiradhammo

A Selection of Scriptural Quotations with Commentary - May 2003

CONTENT

Part 1: The Buddha

Part 2: The Dhamma

FORWARD

This is an on-going project of compiling a selection of scriptural quotations with commentary to express the Buddhist Path of spiritual practice, perhaps eventually culminating in a substantial book. From time to time more selections will be added and present passages possibly re-edited.

Translations are mine unless indicated otherwise. Any comments or suggestions please write to: Thiradhammo Bhikkhu, Dhammapala Monastery, 3718 Kandersteg, Switzerland.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

The sources for this book are the Pali Canon, the scriptures preserved in the Pali language and accepted by the Theravada, or Southern School of Buddhism. ". . . though some parts of it clearly post-date the Buddha, many parts of it are ancient and may date from his day or soon after. [1]

Shortly after the Buddha's final passing, the senior members of the Sangha convened a council to recite and recognise as authentic a body of teachings called "Dhamma" and "Vinaya" (Vin.II,284ff.). At least two other important councils were held later, one hundred years after the Buddha's passing (Vin.II,294ff.) and 236 years after the passing, during the reign of King Asoka, about 250 BC. At these later councils the "Dhamma-Vinaya" was recited once again and added to, for example, the story of the second council was added to the Vinaya Pitaka and the Kathavatthu, written by the "President of the Third Council", Ven. Tissa Moggaliputta, was added to the Abidhamma Pitaka.  [2]

Part 1: The Buddha

INTRODUCTION

Historically, the religion known as Buddhism is traced to the Buddha, the "Awakened One", who is believed to have lived in northern India from 563 to 483 BCE. [3]   The Buddhist canonical tradition, however, places the teachings of Buddhism far beyond the sphere of one particular figure. The Buddha is quoted as saying that he has "found the ancient path, the ancient trail, travelled by the Fully Enlightened Ones of old." [4]      The (older) texts also enumerate and give details of the lives of six previous Buddhas who lived in the distant past and a future Buddha. [5]

There is no comprehensive biography of the Buddha in the Pali Canon. Several parts of the Canon give some lengthy (auto)biographical details of certain parts of his life (M.sut.26; D.sut.16; Mahavagga, Ch.1), while other biographical fragments are scattered throughout the Canon. It is also noticeable that there is a certain amount of contrast between what is recorded in the 'early' canonical texts and the `later' and post canonical texts about the Buddha's life. That is, the later texts tend more towards portraying the Buddha as a supernatural being with exemplary qualities embellished with miraculous occurrences. [6]

However, it should also be borne in mind that the texts do contain a mixture of historical, supernatural, allegorical and metaphorical material. Just because some account in the texts does not fit our idea of historical validity does not mean that it is therefore fictional, as it may have allegorical meaning. For example, the wonders surrounding the Buddha's birth and death may fall into this category. Joseph Campbell makes an important observation when he notes the "close relationship maintained in the Orient between myth, psychology, and metaphysics." [7]

While it is difficult (if not impossible) to completely separate the `early' material from the `late' in the main core of the Pali Canon, it is possible to distinguish some later texts in the Canon. Thus the Nidânakathâ, the introduction to the Jâtaka, "is the earliest attempt in Pali to give a connected life-story of the Buddha." [8]      This text, although containing very old material, may only date from the 5th century CE . [9]      It contains biographical details from the distant past lives of the Buddha up to the donation of the Jetavana Monastery in the early years of the Buddha's teaching (J.1-95). It has thus summarised some of the material contained in various parts of the Canon. [10]     Three suttas in the Sutta-nipata (Sn.405ff.; Sn.425ff.; Sn.509ff.) are described as "precious remnants of that ancient spiritual ballad-poetry" which are "rich in legend-like features and mythical paraphernalia". [11]

It should perhaps also be noted that the "texts" were originally preserved orally. Thus, for the sake of easy remembrance, they contain a substantial amount of "stock phrases". These sometimes do not exactly fit the situation in which they occur, for example, see 4) below where it says that the Buddha´s mother cried when he left the homelife, even though in another passage it is mentioned that his mother died shortly after he was born (M.III, 122)

It is ironic that the early Buddhist scriptures record very little of the personal history of the founder. Of course, those who live close to the original teacher are much more concerned with what the teacher actually teaches than the details of the teacher's personal life.

1. "I was delicate, most delicate, supremely delicate. Lotus ponds were made for me at my father's house solely for my benefit. Blue lotuses flowered in one, white lotuses in another, red lotuses in a third. I used no sandalwood that was not of Benares. My turban, tunic, lower garments and cloak were all made of Benares cloth. A white sunshade was held over me day and night so that no cold or heat or dust or grit or dew might inconvenience me.

"I had three mansions; [12]     one for the Winter, one for the Summer and one for the Rainy Season. In the Rainy Season mansion I was entertained by minstrels with no men among them. For the four months of the Rainy Season I never went down to the lower mansion. Though meals of broken rice with lentil soup are given to the servants and retainers in other people's houses, in my father's house white rice and meat was given to them."
A.I,145. (adapted from Nanamoli, LoB, p.9)

This text is a poetic expression of a much better-than-average lifestyle. Similar phraseology is also used in reference to two other people signifying a wealthy, cared-for life -- the former Buddha Vipassi (D.II,21) and Yasa, the son of a wealthy merchant of Benares (Vin.I,15). Although later tradition describes the Buddha as being born into the royal family of a rich kingdom, references in the Pali Canon suggest that, at most, he was the son of the temporary chief of a small aristocratic tribal republic known by the name Sakya. [13]    This was situated in the foothills of the Himalayas with the capital of Kapilavatthu. At that time they are mentioned as tributary to the powerful kingdom of Kosala (D.III,83;M.I,110;124;etc.).

The Buddha is quoted as describing his biographical details thus: he belonged to the Warrior/noble class, his clan name was Gotama, his father's name was Suddhodana and his mother's name was Maya (D.II,3ff). Other references indicate that his mother died shortly after his birth (M.III,122) and that he was nursed by his stepmother Mahapajapati (M.III,253).

There is mention of the young child being visited by a Holy Sage who prophesized his spiritual success (Sn.509ff.). Mention is also made of the Buddha's son, Rahula, whose mother is only identified as "Rahula's mother" (Vin.I,82). Some of the other canonical biographical material, for example, the details of his birth (M.III,122; cf D.II,12ff), are perhaps more allegorical than factual.

2. "Whilst I had such power and good fortune, yet I thought: `When an untaught ordinary person, who is subject to ageing, not safe from ageing, sees another who is aged, they are shocked, humiliated and disgusted; for they forget that they also are no exception. But I too am subject to ageing, not safe from ageing, and so it cannot befit me to be shocked, humiliated and disgusted on seeing another who is aged'. When I considered this, the vanity of youth entirely left me.

"I thought: `When an untaught ordinary person, who is subject to sickness, not safe from sickness, sees another who is sick, they are shocked, humiliated and disgusted; for they forget that they also are no exception. But I too am subject to sickness, not safe from sickness, and so it cannot befit me to be shocked, humiliated and disgusted on seeing another who is sick'. When I considered this, the vanity of health entirely left me.

"I thought: `When an untaught ordinary person, who is subject to death, not safe from death, sees another who is dead, they are shocked, humiliated and disgusted; for they forget that they also are no exception. But I too am subject to death, not safe from death, and so it cannot befit me to be shocked, humiliated and disgusted on seeing another who is dead'. When I considered this, the vanity of life entirely left me."
A.I,145 (adapted from Nanamoli, LoB, p. 9)

This passage indicates that the Buddha-to-be was a reflective and sensitive person who was disturbed by the true realities of the human condition. This was expressed allegorically as a direct confrontation by the delicate and sheltered Bodhisatta with an old person, a sick person, and a dead person. There is canonical support for this story as the Buddha mentions this same confrontation occurring to the previous Buddha, Vipassi, and then says that this also occurs to all future Buddhas (D.II,12ff). These are also known as the three "Heavenly Messengers" (M.III,179ff).

3. "Now I, bhikkhus, before awakening, while I was still an unawakened Bodhisatta, being myself subject to birth, ageing, sickness, death, sorrow and defilement, sought what was likewise subject to birth, ageing, sickness, death, sorrow and defilement. Then I reflected: `Why do I, being myself subject to birth, ageing, sickness, death, sorrow and defilement, seek what is likewise subject to birth, ageing, sickness, death, sorrow and defilement? Suppose that I, being myself subject to these things, having seen the peril in them, should seek the unborn, unageing, unailing, deathless, sorrowless, undefiled supreme surcease of bondage -- Nibbana?" M.I,163 (abridged)

The sensitive awareness of the frailty of human life frequently leads people to depression, despair or pessimism -- unless there is the possibility of a solution to this human predicament. This solution lies in the spiritual realm, that particular area of human knowledge which deals with life's ultimate questions. The Buddha-to-be was aware that such a solution was possible through a turning away from that which is born in order to realise that which is unborn. This attitude was symbolised by the Buddha-to-be seeing a religious mendicant dedicated to the search for spiritual Truth (D.II,28).

4. "Now I, before awakening, while I was still an unawakened Bodhisatta, reflected: Confined is the household life, a path of dust. Going forth (to homelessness) is wide open. It is not easy living in a house to lead the religious life completely fulfilled and purified, as polished as mother-of-pearl. Suppose I were to shave off my hair and beard, cloth myself in ochre robes and go forth from the homelife into homelessness." (M.I,240; II,211)

"Later, while still young, a black-haired boy endowed with august youth, in the beginning of life -- although my unwilling mother and father lamented with tearful faces -- I shaved off my hair and beard, put on ochre robes and went forth from the homelife into homelessness." (M.I,163;240; II,93;212)

In the culture of India during the Buddha's time, and also in the present time, it was recognised that a serious spiritual search could only be undertaken by one who had surrendered the responsibilities of the household life in order to commit all their energies towards the spiritual struggle. The clear insight into the mortal and corruptible nature of human existence compelled the Bodhisatta to sacrifice the comforts of a wealthy social position and the pleasures of a secure family life for the hardships and insecurity of the spiritual quest for Truth.

5. "I, thus gone forth, striving after what is good, searching for the incomparable, excellent path to peace, approached Alara Kalama and said to him: `Friend Kalama, I want to live the religious life in this teaching and training'.

"This said, bhikkhus, Alara Kalama replied: `The venerable may abide here. This teaching is such that an astute person in no long time may enter on and abide in it, oneself realising through higher knowledge just as one's own teacher'. So I, bhikkhus, very soon, very quickly, mastered that teaching.

"Then I reflected, bhikkhus: This teaching does not conduce to disenchantment, to dispassion, to cessation, to peace, to higher knowledge, to awakening nor to Nibbana, but only to the attainment of the Sphere of Nothingness.

"So, not getting sufficient from this teaching, I abandoned and left this teaching." (M.I,163f;240; II,93;212)

India in the 6th century BC was rich in a great variety of spiritual teachings. As appropriate for a young man seeking for the ultimate answers to life's questions, the Buddha-to-be sought out a recognised master to give him instruction. The pupil, however, very soon mastered the teaching, but was not satisfied. His spiritual yearning was not yet satiated.

The account continues with his seeking out another teacher, Udaka Ramaputta, who taught him the higher meditative attainment of the Sphere of Neither-perception-nor-non-perception. [14]       The Buddha-to-be likewise quickly mastered this teaching and was likewise unsatisfied. He then set off on his own spiritual experimentation.

6. "I thought: `Suppose, with my teeth clenched and my tongue pressed against the roof of my mouth, I beat down, constrain and crush my mind with my mind?' Then, as a strong man might seize a weaker by the head or shoulders and beat him down, constrain him and crush him, so with my teeth clenched and my tongue pressed against the roof of my mouth, I beat down, constrained and crushed my mind with my mind. Sweat ran from my armpits as I did so.

"Though tireless energy was aroused in me, and unremitting mindfulness established, yet my body was overwrought and uncalm because I was exhausted by the painful effort. But such painful feelings as arose in me, gained no power over my mind.

"I thought: `Suppose I practise the meditation that is without breathing?' I stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths in my mouth and nose. When I did so, there was a loud sound of winds coming from my ear holes, as there is a loud sound when a smith's bellows are blown.

"I stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths in my mouth and nose and ears. When I did so, violent winds racked my head, as if a strong man where splitting my head open with a sharp sword. And then there were violent pains in my head, as if a strong man were tightening a tough leather strap round my head as a head-band. And then violent winds carved up my belly, as a clever butcher or his apprentice carves up an ox's belly with a sharp knife. And then there was a violent burning in my belly, as if two strong men had seized a weaker by both arms and were roasting him over a pit of live coals.

"And each time, though tireless energy was roused in me and unremitting mindfulness established, yet my body was overwrought and uncalm because I was exhausted by the painful effort. But such feelings as arose in me gained no power over my mind."
M.I,242ff (abridged); II,93; 212 (Nanamoli, LoB, p.17ff)

Though very diligent in his endeavours to win to some spiritual truth, the Buddha-to-be still was not satisfied with the results. Not having achieved significant results with various meditation practices, the Buddha-to-be undertook to follow some of the ascetic practices for which India was renowned.

7. "Such was my asceticism that I went naked, rejecting conventions, licking my hands, not coming when asked, not stopping when asked . . . I clothed myself in hemp, in hemp mixed cloth, in shrouds, in refuse-rags, in tree bark, in antelope hide, in kusa-grass fabric, in bark fabric, in wood (shavings) fabric, in head-hair wool, in animal wool, in owl's wings.

"I was one who pulled out hair and beard, pursuing the practice of pulling out hair and beard. I was one who stood continuously, rejecting seats. I was one who squatted continuously, devoted to maintaining the squatting position. I was one who used a mattress of spikes; I made a mattress of spikes my bed. I dwelt pursuing the practice of bathing in water for the third time by nightfall. Such was my asceticism.

"I would go off to some awe-inspiring grove and dwell there -- a grove so awe-inspiring that normally it would make a man's hair stand up if he were not free from lust. I would dwell by night in the open and by day in the grove when those cold wintry nights came during the Eight-days Interval of Frost. I would dwell by day in the open and by night in the grove in the last month of the hot season. And there came to me spontaneously this stanza never heard before:

Chilled by night and scorched by day,
Alone in awe-inspiring groves,
Naked, no fire to sit beside,
The hermit yet pursues his quest.

"I would make my bed in a charnel ground with the bones of the dead for a pillow. And cowherd boys came up and spat on me, made water on me, threw dirt at me, and poked sticks into my ears. Yet I never knew the arising of an evil mind (thoughts) about them. Such was my abiding in equanimity." M.I,77ff (Nanamoli, Treasury 3, p.249ff)

"I thought: `Suppose I take very little food, say, a handful each time, whether it is bean soup or lentil soup or pea soup?' I did so. And as I did so, my body reached a state of extreme emaciation; my limbs became like the joined segments of vine stems or bamboo stems, because of eating so little. My back-side became like a camel's hoof; the projections on my spine stood forth like corded beads; my ribs jutted out as gaunt as the crazy rafters of an old roofless barn; the gleam of my eyes, sunk far down in their sockets, looked like the gleam of water sunk far down in a deep well; my scalp shrivelled and withered as a green gourd shrivels and withers in the wind and sun. If I touched my belly skin, I encountered my backbone too; and if I touched my backbone, I encountered my belly skin too -- for my belly skin cleaved to my backbone. If I relieved myself, I fell over on my face then and there. If I tried to ease my body by rubbing my limbs with my hands, the hair, rotted at its roots, fell away from my body as I rubbed -- because of eating so little." M.I,242ff; II,93; 212 (adapted from Nanamoli, LoB, p.17ff)

Some of these ascetic practices were common among the various religious sects which proliferated during the 6th century BC. The Buddha-to-be tried them, but found them unsatisfactory to his quest.

8. "I thought: `Whenever a samana or brahmana has felt in the past, or will feel in the future, or feels now -- painful, racking, piercing feeling due to striving -- it can equal this but not exceed it. But, by this severe austerity, I have not attained any superior human condition worthy of the Noble One's knowledge and vision. Might there be another way to awakening?

"I thought of a time when my Sakyan father was working and I was sitting in the cool shade of a rose-apple tree -- quite secluded from sensual desires, secluded from unprofitable things I had entered upon and abode in the first meditation, which is accompanied by thinking and exploring with happiness and pleasure born of seclusion. I thought: `Might that be the way to awakening?' Then, following up that memory there came the recognition that this was the way to awakening.

"Then I thought: `Why am I afraid of such pleasure? It is pleasure that has nothing to do with sensual desires and unprofitable things.' Then I thought: `I am not afraid of such pleasure, for it has nothing to do with sensual desires and unprofitable things.'

"I thought: `It is not possible to attain that pleasure with a body so excessively emaciated. Suppose I ate some solid food -- boiled rice and sour milk?'"
M.I,246f (adapted from Nanamoli, LoB, p.21)

The Buddha-to-be had experienced a vast range of spiritual practices which were traditionally held to be the only means for realising Truth. He was, however, still not satisfied. In his disappointment and disillusionment he sought a different way. Turning away from the path of painful self-mortification he thought to try the way of non-sensual spiritual pleasure. This was a very unique and controversial move. Five ascetics who had been attending him during his super-human privations left him in disgust, thinking he had given up the spiritual struggle. Alone and on a new course the Buddha-to-be renewed his spiritual search.

9. "Now when I had taken ample nutriment and had regained strength, aloof from sense pleasures, aloof from unskilful things, I entered upon and dwelt in the First Absorption, which is accompanied by thinking and reflecting, with happiness and joy born of aloofness. But such pleasant feeling as arose persisted without gaining power over my mind. "With the allaying of thinking and reflecting I entered upon and dwelt in the Second Absorption, which has the mind internally tranquillised and fixed on one point, free from thinking and reflecting, with happiness and joy born of concentration. But such pleasant feeling as arose persisted without gaining power over my mind.

"With the fading of joy, I dwelt in equanimity, mindful and clearly aware; experiencing in my being that pleasure of which the noble ones say: `Equanimity and mindfulness is a pleasurable abiding', I entered upon and dwelt in the Third Absorption. But such pleasant feeling as arose persisted without gaining power over my mind.

"With the giving up of pleasure and pain, and with the disappearance of former mental ease and dis-ease, I entered upon and dwelt in the Fourth Absorption, which has neither pain nor pleasure and is purified by equanimity and mindfulness. But such pleasant feeling as arose persisted without gaining power over my mind." (M.I,247f)

The development of these four stages of increasingly deeper concentration and absorption into the meditation object gives the mind a greater degree of strength and power which can then be used towards the goal of awakening. The Buddha-to-be had already previously developed these, except now he was using them as a tool to strengthen the mind rather than as an end in themselves.

Having discovered a new path, re-established his resolve and reached an exceptionally refined degree of mental development, the Buddha-to-be was open to a profound human experience -- the experience of Awakening. This exceptional experience is expressed in the realm of concepts in various ways, the most common being in terms of the `Three Knowledges'.

10. "With the mind thus composed, purified, cleansed, unblemished, without defilement, malleable and workable, steady and immovable, I directed my mind to the knowledge and recollection of former existences. I recollected a variety of former abidings [15]      thus: one birth, two births, three births, four births, five births, ten births, twenty births, thirty births, forty births, fifty births, a hundred births, a thousand births, a hundred thousand births, many an age of disintegration, many an age of integration, many an age of disintegration-integration; such was my name, such my lineage, such my appearance, such my food, such my experience of pleasure and pain, such my span of life. Thence passing away, I arose in another existence where such was my name, such my lineage, such my appearance, such my food, such my experience of pleasure and pain, such my span of life. Thence passing away, I arose here. Thus with characteristics and details I recollected various former abidings.

"This was the first knowledge attained by me in the first watch of the night. Ignorance was destroyed and knowledge arose; darkness was destroyed and light arose, accordingly as I dwelt vigilant, ardent and resolute. But such pleasant feeling as arose persisted without gaining power over my mind.

"With the mind thus composed, purified, cleansed, unblemished, without defilement, malleable and workable, steady and immovable, I directed my mind to the knowledge of the passing away and reappearance of beings. With clairvoyant vision, purified and surpassing that of humans, I saw beings passing away and reappearing. I understood that beings are inferior or superior, beautiful or ugly, well-faring or ill-faring according to their actions (kamma). Indeed these worthy beings who were possessed of bad conduct of body, bad conduct of speech and bad conduct of mind, revilers of noble ones, of wrong view, acquiring actions from wrong view -- upon the breaking up of the body after death have arisen in states of privation, an unfavourable destination, in a place of suffering, in purgatory. But these worthy beings who were possessed of good conduct of body, good conduct of speech and good conduct of mind, not revilers of noble ones, of right view, acquiring actions due to right view -- upon the breaking up of the body after death have arisen in a favourable destination, a heaven world.

"With clairvoyant vision, purified and surpassing that of humans, I saw beings passing away and reappearing. I understood that beings are inferior or superior, beautiful or ugly, well-faring or ill-faring according to their actions (kamma).

"This was the second knowledge attained by me in the second watch of the night. Ignorance was destroyed and knowledge arose; darkness was destroyed and light arose, accordingly as I dwelt vigilant, ardent and resolute. But such pleasant feeling as arose persisted without gaining power over my mind.

"With the mind thus composed, purified, cleansed, unblemished, without defilement, malleable and workable, steady and immovable, I directed my mind to the knowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows (asava). I had direct knowledge, as it really is, that:

`This is suffering; this is the arising of suffering; this is the cessation of suffering; this is the path to the cessation of suffering'. I had direct knowledge, as it really is, that: `These are the outflows; this is the arising of the outflows; this is the cessation of the outflows; this is the path to the cessation of the outflows'. Knowing thus and seeing thus my mind was freed from the outflow of sense pleasure, the outflow of becoming and the outflow of ignorance. In freedom the knowledge came: `There is freedom'; I had direct knowledge: `Birth is exhausted, the religious life has been fulfilled, what was to be done is done, there is no more of being thus'.

"This was the third knowledge attained by me in the third watch of the night. Ignorance was destroyed and knowledge arose, darkness was destroyed and light arose, accordingly as I dwelt vigilant, ardent and resolute. But such pleasant feeling as arose persisted without gaining power over my mind. (M.I,247ff; cf. M.I,22f;117)

These "Three Knowledges" were also realised by some of the disciples of the Buddha, although they are not special requirements for the realisation of Awakening. The profound insight which the Buddha realised in the experience of Awakening is expressed in a variety of ways in different parts of the Canon.

11. "So also, bhikkhus, have I seen an ancient path, an ancient road, travelled along by fully Enlightened Ones of former times. And what, bhikkhus, is that ancient path, that ancient road, travelled along by fully Enlightened Ones of former times? It is just this Noble Eightfold Path, that is to say, right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.

"This is that ancient path, that ancient road, travelled along by fully Enlightened Ones of former times, and going along it I came to know ageing-and-death, I came to know the origin of ageing-and-death, I came to know the cessation of ageing-and-death, I came to know the way leading to the cessation of ageing-and-death. Going along it I came to know birth . . . becoming . . . grasping . . . craving [. . . feeling . . . contact . . . sixfold sense-field . . mind-and-body . . . consciousness .] I came to know volitional activities, I came to know the origin of volitional activities, I came to know the cessation of volitional activities, I came to know the line of conduct leading to the cessation of volitional activities.

Having understood it (through personal experience) I have taught it to the bhikkhus, bhikkhunis, the male and female lay-followers, so that this holy life has become rich, prosperous and wide-spread, known to many, widely known and announced by celestials and humans." (S.II,105f, Ireland trans., Wheel 107/109, p.25-6 )

Several times the Buddha's experience of Awakening is expressed as the understanding of Conditional Causality (S.II,10;103ff; cf. Vin.1,1-2; Ud.1-3), and in other places as fully comprehending the satisfaction, misery and escape from the: 4 elements (S.II,169ff); 5 khandhas (S.III,27ff); 6 senses and 6 sense-objects (S.IV,6ff;97); feelings (S.IV,233); 5 faculties (S.V,203); world (A.I,258).

It is also stated that this Awakening was assisted by the development of mindfulness of breathing (S.V,316) and the basis of psychic power (S.V,264ff), seeing the peril in pleasures and being proficient in the entering and emerging from the 9 absorptions (A.IV,438ff).

12. "So, bhikkhus, being myself subject to birth, ageing, sickness, death, sorrow and defilement -- having seen the peril in what is subject to these things -- seeking the unborn, unageing, unailing, deathless, sorrowless, undefiled, supreme surcease of bondage, Nibbana -- I realised the unborn, unageing, unailing, deathless, sorrowless, undefiled, supreme surcease of bondage, Nibbana.

Knowledge and vision arose in me: unshakeable is my liberation, this is my last birth, there is now no renewed becoming." (M.I,150 abridged)

With the experience of Full Awakening, the Buddha-to-be's six strenuous years of ardent spiritual search and striving were rewarded. He had realised the unshakeable liberation of Nibbana and was now known as the Buddha, the One-Who-Knows the Truth. However, this Truth was indeed very different from what most people know, and was exceptionally hard to articulate.

13. "It occurred to me, bhikkhus: `This dhamma which I have found is profound, difficult to see, difficult to understand, peaceful, excellent, beyond logic, subtle, comprehensible only to the wise. But this is a humanity which loves desire, is delighted by desire, delighting in desire.

Thus, for a humanity which loves desire, is delighted by desire, delighting in desire, this is a subject difficult to comprehend, that is to say, causal connectedness, conditional causality. And indeed this is a subject difficult to comprehend, that is to say, the stilling of all formations, the giving up of all attachment, the exhaustion of craving, dispassion, cessation, nibbana. And if I were to teach dhamma and others did not understand me, that would be a weariness and vexation to me . . Such, as I was reflecting, my mind inclined to not bothering, to not teaching dhamma." (M.I,150f; Vin.I,4f; S.I,136f; cf. D.II,36f)

The Truth which the Buddha realised is quite contrary to the usual way of the world. That is, it is opposite to the birth, ageing and death which is common to worldly human beings -- it is the "unborn, unageing, unailing, deathless", which most people can not even imagine! And trying to teach this seemingly incomprehensible teaching to others would be futile. However, the celestial being Brahma Sahampati realised the serious consequences of this decision by the Buddha and beseeched him to teach for the sake of "beings with little dust in their eyes".

14. "Then I, bhikkhus, having known Brahma's entreaty, out of compassion for beings, surveyed the world with the eye of an Awakened One. I saw, bhikkhus, as I surveyed the world with the eye of an Awakened One, beings with little defilement, with much defilement, with keen faculties, with dull faculties, with good qualities, with bad qualities, easy to teach, hard to teach, and only a few who dwelt seeing faults and fear in the world beyond.

"Just as in a pond of blue lotuses or a pond of red lotuses or a pond of white lotuses -- only a few blue, red or white lotuses are born in the water, grow up in the water, do not rise above the water but thrive completely immersed in the water -- only a few blue, red or white lotuses are born in the water, grow up in the water, rest on the surface of the water -- only a few blue, red or white lotuses are born in the water, grow up in the water, stand up out of the water, untainted by the water.

"Then I, bhikkhus, addressed Brahma Sahampati in these verses:

Open are the doors to the Deathless,
For those who hear, let them show faith;
Considering vexation, I inclined not to teach dhamma,
I know is excellent for human beings, Brahma.
(M.I,169 abridged)

Thus the Buddha overcame his original hesitation and decided to make the Path to Awakening known to those who were seeking. Celestial beings in Buddhism are recognised as beings of advanced spiritual development, the higher levels only attainable through refined meditation practice rather than mere virtuous actions. Several of the brahmanical "gods", in this quotation, Brahma, and in other quotations, Indra (Sakka, cf. D.21), have been co-opted into being partial to Buddhism. Metaphorically, they may represent the more noble human qualities.

15. "The Tathagata is perfected and fully awakened. Listen, bhikkhus, the Non-Dying has been attained. I shall instruct you; I shall teach you Dhamma. Following what has been advised, you will soon enter on and abide in, know and experience for yourself that unsurpassed culmination of the religious life for the sake of which a person of good family rightly goes forth from the homelife into homelessness."
Vin.I,9.

The Buddha first considered who would be most likely to understand his subtle teaching. He first remembered his two initial teachers (see 5) above), however, both of them had already passed away. Next he recalled the five ascetics who had attended upon him during his asceticism. These he sought out in the Deer Park at Sarnath near present day Varanasi. To them he gave his first teaching, with immediate results.

16.  "Then the venerable Aññata Kondañña, having seen, reached, known, and penetrated into Dhamma, having crossed over doubt, without uncertainty, having attained perfect confidence in the Master's Teaching without depending upon another, said to the Exalted One: `May I, sir, receive the going forth in the Exalted One's presence. May I receive the acceptance.'

`Come, bhikkhu', the Exalted One said, `well-taught is Dhamma. Live the religious life for the complete ending of suffering.'"
Vin.I,12

Annata Kondanna, being the first to understand this new teaching, immediately requested to become a committed disciple of the Buddha. He thus became the first bhikkhu to enter the Buddhist Sangha. He was soon followed by the other four ascetics as they also penetrated to the true meaning of the Buddha´s message.

17. "Wander about, bhikkhus, for the benefit and happiness of the manyfolk, out of compassion for the world, for the welfare, benefit and well-being of human and celestial beings. Let not two of you go by one path. Teach the Dhamma which is beautiful in the beginning, beautiful in the middle and beautiful in the end. Explain the religious life, in spirit and in letter, completely fulfilled and pure." Vin.I,21

As the Buddha travelled and taught an increasing number of people realised the truth of his teaching and became fully awakened. When the number reached 60 the Buddha exhorted them to wander further afield in order to share the teaching with other suffering beings. For the next 45 years the Buddha himself wandered about northern India tirelessly teaching innumerable people, from highly-educated brahmins to simple farmers, from members of others sects to the rulers of neighbouring territories.

18. “Ananda, I am now decrepit, old, aged, one who has traversed the span of life, reached the term of eighty. Just as an old cart is made to go on with the help of supports, so too the Tathagatha´s body is made to go on with the help of supports. It is only when the Tathagatha withdraws attention from all signs, and with the cessation of certain feelings, he enters the signless concentration that his body is at ease.
Therefore, Ananda, you should make your self your lamp [16] , your self and no other your refuge. You should make the Dhamma your lamp, the Dhamma and no other your lamp. And how does a bhikkhu do that? Here a bhikkhu abides contemplating the four foundations of mindfulness. “ D.II,100

Finally, after living some 80 years, the Buddha´s body reached it limits. Only through the powers of his meditation could he maintain some degree of physical comfort.
His emphasis upon taking one´s self as lamp and refuge reinforces the contemplative nature of his teaching – only within oneself can the source of suffering be discovered and together with the Dhamma, the Buddha´s specific path of spiritual practice, suffering can be resolved.

19. “Then the Exalted One said to the monks: `Thus, monks, I declare to you – it is the nature of all conditioned things to decay; strive on with vigilance.´ 
These were the Tathagata´s last words.” D.II,156
 

Part Two: The Dhamma

The Right Attitude

1. "Now I say this, Nigrodha: Whatever discerning persons come to me who are honest, open and straightforward -- I will instruct them, I will teach them Dhamma. If they practice in accordance with what is taught, in this very life, within seven years, they will enter on and abide in, know and experience for themselves that unsurpassed culmination of the religious life for the sake of which a person of good family rightly goes forth from the homelife into homelessness. Let alone seven years -- six years; let alone six years -- five years . . . a fortnight; let alone a fortnight -- in seven days they will know and experience this for themselves."
     (D.III,55)

The Buddha offers us the possibility of realising spiritual liberation. This is sometimes referred to as the "culmination of the religious life", because it is the ultimate Truth, and realisation of Truth is the principle purpose of human life.
This must be realised by each one of us for ourselves through practising the teachings, rather than merely studying or worshipping them. In order to realise this most people require instruction, and some leave the security and confines of the homelife to be able to explore wider possibilities to the greatest extent.
The Buddha did not offer teachings to people depending upon their class, status or intelligence; he chose those who showed the important qualities of integrity and earnestness -- the fundamental basis for true spiritual endeavour. Integrity is that openness and truthfulness to see things clearly, while earnestness is that perseverance and commitment which keeps us penetrating ever deeper into Truth, in spite of all the obstacles.
The Buddha has tremendous confidence in human beings' ability to put his teachings into practice and realise the Truth of liberation in this very life -- whether in seven years or in seven days!

2. "Nibbana, though very subtle and fine, is not hard to obtain for one intent upon the goal, who is skilled in mind and of gentle manner, and who practises the moral conduct of the Buddha." (Thera.vv71)

"Nibbana, as taught by the fully Enlightened One, is indeed the highest happiness: the sorrowless, stainless peace, wherein suffering is dissolved." (Thera.vv227)

The Buddha's teaching directs us to nibbana, something difficult to describe but within reach of every individual. Out of respect for the lofty heights of spiritual truth, we frequently push the goal out of the realm of human possibility. But the very existence of people who have practised and realised the teachings, as these quotations from some of the Buddha's disciples demonstrate, are an emphatic reminder that nibbana is realisable by the honest and persevering individual following the teachings of the Buddha.
Nibbana is something exceptionally pleasant and worthwhile, whether it is expressed positively as "the highest happiness", or neutrally as "the sorrowless, stainless peace", or negatively as "wherein suffering is dissolved". And it can be realised in this life -- like human happiness, nibbana can be realised here and now.


3. "Bhikkhus, all is burning. And what is the all that is burning?
The eye is burning, forms are burning, eye-consciousness is burning, eye-contact is burning, also whatever is felt as pleasant or painful or neither-painful-nor-pleasant that arises with eye-contact for its indispensable condition, that too is burning.
Burning with what? Burning with the fire of lust, with the fire of hate, with the fire of delusion; I say it is burning with birth, ageing, death, with sorrow, with lamentation, with pain, with grief, with despair.
The ear is burning, sounds are burning, . . .
The nose is burning, odours are burning, . . .
The tongue is burning, flavours are burning, . . .
The body is burning, tangibles are burning, . . .
The mind is burning, mind-states are burning, mind-consciousness is burning, mind-contact is burning, also whatever is felt as pleasant or painful or neither-painful-nor-pleasant that arises with mind-contact for its indispensable condition, that too is burning.
Burning with what? Burning with the fire of greed, with the fire of aversion, with the fire of delusion; I say it is burning with birth, ageing, death, with sorrow, with lamentation, with pain, with grief, with despair." Vin.I,34-5; S.IV,19-20

In the course of life some people come to realise the limitations of the sensory realm. Initially, we may think that we have complete control over sense impressions – we just need to keep away from those we are averse to and enjoy only those we desire. However, we sooner or later come to see how difficult it is to control what our senses contact. We are continually “burned” by averse impressions. We are “burned” by desireable impressions because we can´t get enough of them.

4. “`The unstable world is brought to an end´; this is the first expounding of Dhamma taught by the Revered One who knows and sees, the worthy one, the fully self awakened one. Because of knowing and seeing and hearing this, I went forth from the homelife into homelessness.
`The world is without shelter or protection´; this is the second expounding of Dhamma . . . 
`The world is not one´s own; one must pass away leaving everything´; this is the third expounding of Dhamma . . .
`The world is deficient, unsatisfied, a slave of craving´; this is the fourth expounding of Dhamma taught by the Revered One who knows and sees, the worthy one, the fully self awakened one. Because of knowing and seeing and hearing this, I went forth from the homelife into homelessness.” M.II,68f 

Each person has their own reasons for engaging in a spiritual quest. These four reasons were given by one of the Buddha´s early disciples, the son of a wealthy merchant. While we all may appreciate the truth of these statements intellectually, it is the deep and personal realisation of them which upsets our normal view of life. And only in the spiritual realm can answers be obtained.

Self-Reliance

5. "Now, look you Kalamas, do not be led by reports, or tradition, or hearsay. Be not led by the authority of religious texts, nor by mere logic or inference, nor by considering appearances, nor by the delight in speculative opinions, nor by seeming possibilities, nor by the idea: `This is our teacher'. But, O Kalamas, when you know for yourselves that certain things are unwholesome, and wrong, and bad, then give them up . . . And when you know for yourselves that certain things are wholesome and good, then accept them and follow them." A.I,188ff.(Rahula trans.)

The Buddha encouraged the Kalama people, who were visited by a variety of religious teachers expounding a diversity of doctrines, to make a careful personal investigation to ascertain what was really wholesome or unwholesome in these teachings.
Some people may take this to imply a rejection of tradition, texts and teachers. However, what the Buddha is saying is that we should receive the teachings, and then carefully consider, reflect upon, investigate them to see if they are indeed beneficial.
Spiritual experience is a very subjective and personal experience. We need to assume a certain responsibility for our spiritual development and be able to clearly discern what is helpful for us by learning to trust our own "inner wisdom" and rigorously putting the teaching to the test of experience -- do they really work, or do they just sound impressive?

6. "The monk must look for peace within himself and not in any other place. For when a person is inwardly quiet, there is nowhere a self can be found; where, then, could a non-self be found?
There are no waves in the depths of the sea; it is still, unbroken. It is the same with the monk. He is still, without any quiver of desire, without a remnant on which to build pride and desire." Sn.919-920 (Saddhatissa trans.)

Spiritual peace is a subjective experience rather than an external reality. This is found by looking within oneself through the development of internalised meditation practices. The development of Calm Meditation through the use of various concentration exercises can produce a strong feeling of temporary inner quiet. When the mind is able to be collected upon a meditation object, for example, the sensation of natural breathing at the nostrils, the wandering thoughts are calmed and mental noise is silenced. This mental noise or "internal dialogue" is simply obsessive self-reference, either through affirmation or denial. The silencing of mental noise is the silencing of this self-reference with its disturbing pride and desire.
Calm Meditation, however, only provides a temporary experience of quiet. It is the development of Insight Meditation, with emphasis upon penetrating investigative awareness, that one is able to clearly see the true nature of things and free oneself from the very structures and sources of disturbing self-reference. Inner quiet then becomes as stable as the waveless depths of the sea.

7. "By oneself is wrong done, by oneself is one soiled; by oneself is wrong not done, by oneself is one purified. Purity and impurity depend upon oneself; no one can purify another." (Dh.165)

"Though one be victorious in battle over a thousand times a thousand people, yet the victory supreme is victory over oneself." (Dh.103)

The source of our suffering lies within ourselves. The basic cause is selfishness, which is out of harmony with the intrinsic selflessness of the universe. Thus the Buddha's teaching focuses on the internal spiritual practices rather than external religious ceremonies.
In our desire to escape from our suffering we try to manipulate the external world, but we always manipulate it in relation to ourselves. So we are never able to get beyond ourselves, and thus we only create more selfish suffering rather than penetrate to its very source.
Victory over oneself is the rooting out of the self-centred, self-affirming, self-supporting activities which are the source of suffering.

8. "Truly oneself is one's own refuge -- what other refuge can there be? With oneself well-tamed one acquires a refuge hard to obtain. (Dh.160)

"You yourself ought to strive: the Buddhas only show the way. Those who enter upon this way and meditate, are released from the bonds of Death." (Dh.276)

"By endeavour, vigilance, restraint and self-control, let the wise make an island for themselves which no flood can overwhelm." (Dh.25)

The Buddha emphasised the need for individual effort and self-reliance. We have little real control over the external world, but are able to exercise some degree of control over ourselves, so that is where we must start our practice. `Oneself is one's own refuge' literally means `depend upon yourself', `look to yourself', `have confidence in yourself'.
This `self' is the conventional, empirical self which can choose to do good or bad, can make decisions and initiate action. We need to assume responsibility for our actions before we can gain control over our actions. Our suffering is created by our own ignorance. We remedy it through gaining confidence in our own inner wisdom.
The emphasis upon self-reliance is also a reminder not to become overly dependent upon some charismatic or impressive teacher. In their presence it may seem like we are progressing spiritually, but without doing the work ourselves, we are only living on "borrowed wisdom".
 

Noble Friendship

9. "Ananda: `Sir, fully half of this religious life is friendship with the noble, companionship with the noble, association with the noble.'
Buddha: `Not quite so, Ananda, not quite so. It is the whole, not the half, of this religious life: this friendship with the noble, companionship with the noble, association with the noble.'" (S.V,2)

Although self-reliance is an important foundation for spiritual practice, we can also greatly benefit from the support and guidance of a "noble" friend. A noble friend can point us towards the right path, encourage us beyond our own limits and make us aware of those aspects of ourselves we are frightened of or blind and resistant to.
In the Buddha's teaching companionship with the noble is formally represented by the religious community (Sangha) of monks and nuns who have fully committed themselves to a life of spiritual practice and often offer guidance from their own experience. Informally, however, a noble friend is anyone who offers us good advice and wise reflection so that we can more easily discern a spiritual path in life.
Monks, nuns or lay-people who have realised a sufficient degree of insight are know as the "Ariya Sangha", the real Refuge of Sangha and the most noble of friends. They have at least partially "awakened" to the Truth and can really only be identified by their wisdom rather than their physical appearance.

10. "If you should find a wise person who, like a revealer of treasure, points out your faults and reproves you, associate with them. Association with such a person is for the better not the worse." (Dh.76)

"If, even for a moment, an intelligent person associates with someone wise, quickly they will apprehend the Truth -- just as the tongue apprehends the flavour of soup." Dh.65

We can never underestimate the value of associating with someone wise, since we can benefit from their guidance as quickly as the tongue tastes the flavour of soup. Only a short time with a noble friend can help us unravel the confusion in our minds and bring us closer to realising Truth.
Their words are far more priceless than treasure, for they help us unburden the thoughts and actions that weigh us down and prevent us from realising peace. Even though their reproach may not be to our liking, if they are really "noble" friends, their words are meant for our benefit, although it may take some time to appreciate it!
Many times we suffer because we refuse to acknowledge our own faults or accept that we are fundamentally wrong. Others may see this more clearly than ourselves.
 

The Path

11. "Bhikkhus, these two extremes should not be practised by one who has gone forth from the homelife into homelessness. What two? There is devotion to indulgence in sense-pleasures, which is low, common, of ordinary people, ignoble and unprofitable; and there is devotion to self-mortification, which is painful, ignoble and unprofitable.
"Avoiding both these extremes, the Tathagata has realised the Middle Way, which gives vision, gives knowledge, and leads to peace, to higher knowledge, to awakening, to nibbana. And what is that Middle Way? It is this Noble Eightfold Path, that is: right view, right attitude, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right collectedness.
This is the Middle Way realised by the Tathagata which gives vision, gives knowledge, and leads to peace, to higher knowledge, to awakening, to nibbana."
Vin.I,10; S.V,420

The Buddha's Path is the Middle Path, a Path avoiding all extremes in practices, attitudes and views. The two main extremes are self-affirming sensual indulgence and self-denying asceticism. Both of these extremes lead to a re-inforcing of self view because they are still centred upon the self -- holding on to it either through pleasant sensuality or painful mortification. The Middle Path is a very subtle and refined balance between affirmation and negation.
More specifically, the Middle Path is not just wishy-washy indecision, but a precise Path comprising eight factors which must all be Nobly "right" and harmonised. When these eight right factors come together, then one's way of life becomes a Noble Spiritual Path.

12. "The Exalted One, while staying at Rajagaha on Vulture's Peak, gave abundant Dhamma-talk to the bhikkhus: Such is moral conduct, such is meditation, such is wisdom. Meditation, when augmented with moral conduct, gives great fruit and great benefit. Wisdom, when augmented with meditation, gives great fruit and great benefit. The mind, when augmented with wisdom, is completely freed from the outflows of selfhood (asava), that is, the outflow of sensuality, the outflow of becoming, the outflow of views and the outflow of ignorance." D.II,81

The Path leading to liberation can be practised and experienced with the help of noble friendship and our own self-motivation. This Path is the development of skilful conduct, meditation and wisdom. Meditation, grounded in harmonious and supportive behaviour, bears the fruit of spiritual wisdom -- liberation of mind and freedom from suffering.
In practice, however, this process occurs in harmonised successive stages. A basis of moral behaviour allows the development of meditation, then, when we bring the collectedness and clarity of meditation to bear upon our behaviour, we gain some insight into the attitudes and actions which cause suffering. Applying wisdom, we can free ourselves from this disturbing behaviour and arrive at a more refined level of collectedness and clarity, which then reveals more refined levels of disharmonious behaviour.
Wisdom arises from seeing these causal patterns of self-inflicted suffering and wisdom is used to free ourselves from these patterns of self-centred `outflowing'.
 

Skilful Actions

13. "Skilful behaviour is the beginning, the foundation, and the chief cause of all good things. Thus one should purify skilful behaviour.
"Skilful behaviour is the boundary, the control, and the brightening of the mind; and it is the abiding of all the Buddha's. Thus one should purify skilful behaviour."
Theragatha 612-3

"Sandalwood, tagara, lotus, jasmine: above all these kinds of fragrance, the fragrance of virtue is by far the best." Dh.55

Skilful behaviour gives stability and viability to spiritual practice. It is the foundation upon which spiritual practice is built and grounds that practice in one's ordinary, normal life. Otherwise, spiritual practice can too easily become some accessory habit in life, some exceptional but seemingly unliveable experience in life or just a one-off experience which we are unable to contact again.
Skilful behaviour also gives control and a boundary to the mind as an aid to meditation. We may think about all kinds of crazy and immoral things, but our conduct is rooted in harmonious and wholesome actions. Thus we can watch and know the entire range of selfish expressions without needing to follow or react to them.

14. "Ananda, skilful conduct gives freedom from remorse as its gain and advantage; freedom from remorse gives delight as its gain and advantage; delight gives joy; joy gives tranquillity; tranquillity gives well-being; well-being gives collectedness; collectedness gives knowledge and vision of things as they really are; knowledge and vision of things as they really are gives disenchantment and dispassion; disenchantment and dispassion gives knowledge and vision of freedom as its gain and advantage. So indeed, Ananda, skilful conduct gradually leads on to the highest." A.V,2

Skilful conduct or morality provides a foundation for the causal arising of the successive stages of spiritual development. It is not merely an end in itself, although some people may take the freedom from remorse or purity of being which morality engenders as a state of high spiritual attainment. However, many times there is still attachment to that purity, rather than using this worldly state to realise the further qualities of collectedness, knowledge and vision of things as they really are, disenchantment and dispassion, culminating in freedom.
 

ABBREVIATIONS:

A. : Anguttara Nikaya

Bud.Dict. : Buddhist Dictionary

D. : Digha Nikaya

Dh. : Dhammapada

DPPN. : Dictionary of Pali Proper Names;

It. : Itivuttaka

J. : Jataka

LoB: Life of the Buddha, Nanamoli Thera

M. : Majjhima Nikaya

MLDB. : The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha

PED. : Pali-English Dictionary

S. : Samyutta Nikaya

Sn. : Sutta Nipata

Thera. : Theragatha

Their. : Therigatha

Ud. : Udana

Vin. : Vinaya Pitaka

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

General

Pali Canonical Texts in English translation from The Pali Text Society

Anguttara Nikaya: The Book of the Gradual Sayings, F. L. Woodward and E. M. Hare (trans.), 5 vols., 1932-36.

Buddhavamsa: Chronicle of Buddhas, I. B. Horner (trans.), in The Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, Part III, 1975.

Cariyapitaka: Basket of Conduct, I. B. Horner (trans.), in The Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, Part III, 1975.

Digha Nikaya: Dialogues of the Buddha, T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys Davids (trans.), 3 vols., reprinted 1971, 1973.

Itivuttaka: As it Was Said and Udana: Verses of Uplift, F. L. Woodward (trans.), 1935

Jataka-nidana: The Story of Gotama Buddha, N. A. Jayawickrama (trans.), 1990.

Majjhima Nikaya: Middle Length Sayings, I. B. Horner (trans.), 3 vols., 1954-59.

Petavatthu: Stories of the Departed, H. S. Gehman (trans.), in The Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, Part IV, 1974.

Samyutta Nikaya: The Book of the Kindred Sayings, C. A. F. Rhys Davids and F. L. Woodward (trans.), 5 vols., 1917-30.

Sutta Nipata: The Group of Discourses, K. R. Norman (trans.), with alternative translations by I. B. Horner and Ven. Walpola Rahula, 1984.

Theragatha: The Elders' Verses I, K. R. Norman (trans.), 1969.

Therigatha: The Elders' Verses II, K. R. Norman (trans.), 1971.

Vimanavatthu: Stories of the Mansions, I. B. Horner (trans.), in The Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, Part IV, 1974.

Vinaya Pitaka: The Book of the Discipline, I. B. Horner (trans.), 5 vols., 1938-52.

Pali Texts by other publishers

Anguttara Nikaya: Numerical Discourses of the Buddha, Nyanaponika Thera & Bhikkhu Bodhi, Altimira Press, 1999

Dhammapada: The Dhammapada, Narada Thera (Pali ed. and trans.), B. M. S. Publication, np., 3rd ed. 1978.

Digha Nikaya: Thus Have I Heard, M. Walshe (trans.), Wisdom Publications, London, 1987.

Itivuttaka: The Itivuttaka, John D. Ireland, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1991.

Majjhima Nikaya: Treasury of the Buddha's Words (partial translation), B. Nanamoli, Mahamakut Rajavidyalaya Press, Bangkok.

Majjhima Nikaya: The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi, Wisdom Publications, Boston, 1995.

Samyutta Nikaya: The Connected Discourses of the Buddha (2 vols), Bhikkhu Bodhi, Wisdom Publications, Boston, 2000.

Sutta Nipata: The Sutta-Nipata, H. Saddhatissa, Curzon Press, London, 1985.

Vinaya Pitaka: Vinaya Texts (partial translation), T. W. Rhys Davids and H. Oldenberg (trans.), 3 vols., (reprint) Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1974.

Udana: The Udana, John D. Ireland, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1990.

Other Publications

Gombrich, Richard F.; Theravada Buddhism, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1988.

Harvey, Peter; The Selfless Mind; Curzon Press, 1995

Khantipalo, Bhikkhu; Banner of the Arahants, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, 1979.

---------------------- ; Buddha, My Refuge, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, 1990.

Malalasekera, G. P. ; Dictionary of Pali Proper Names;, 2 vols., (reprint), Oriental Books Reprint Corporation, New Delhi, 1983.

Nyanaponika Thera; The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, Rider, London, 1987.

Nyanatiloka; Buddhist Dictionary, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, 1980.

Rahula, Walpola; What the Buddha Taught, Gordon Fraser, London, 1982.

Rhys Davids, T. W. and W. Stede; Pali-English Dictionary, (reprint) Oriental Books Reprint Corporation, Delhi, 1975.

Saddatissa, H.; The Sutta-Nipata, Curzon Press, London, 1985.

Walshe, M.; Thus Have I Heard: The Long Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom, London,1987.

Winternitz, M.; A History of Indian Literature, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1988.

Publications Specifically on The Buddha

Carrithers, M.; The Buddha; Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1983.

Jayawickrama N. A.; Jataka-nidana: The Story of Gotama Buddha, PTS, 1990.

Khosla, S.; The Historical Evolution of the Buddha Legend, Intellectual Publishing House, New Delhi, 1989.

Nanamoli, Bhikkhu; The Life of the Buddha, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, 1972.

Saddhatissa, H.; The Life of the Buddha, Unwin Paperbacks, London, 1981.

Schumann, H.W.; The Historical Buddha, Arkana, London, 1989.

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